Green heterogeneous catalysts derived from fermented kola nut pod husk for sustainable biodiesel production

The use of green heterogeneous catalysts that are obtained from waste agricultural biomass can make the production of biodiesel more economical. In this research, three solid base heterogeneous catalysts (Catalyst A, B, and C) were synthesized from kola nut pod husks, and the synergistic effects of the elemental composition on catalytic activities for biodiesel production were studied. The results revealed a high surface area of Catalysts A, B, and C at 419.90 m ²/g, 430.54 m ²/g, and 432.57 m ²/g, respectively. Their corresponding pore diameters are 3.53 nm, 3.48 nm, and 3.32 nm, showing that the catalysts are mesoporous in nature. The X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) results revealed the presence of a variety of alkaline earth metals and their corresponding metal oxides in substantial amounts. Catalyst A was produced with the highest concentration of calcium at 40.84 wt.% and calcium oxide at 68.02 mole%. The substantial concentration of other elements, such as potassium, magnesium, and aluminum, and their corresponding metal oxides are the proof of high catalytic activity of the produced green catalysts. The high CaO contents of all three produced catalysts and their high surface areas indicate their strong potential for good catalytic activities applied to the synthesis of biodiesel.