Green and blue-green infrastructure – benefits, trade-offs, and optimisation of ecosystem services: an overview with perspectives for research and management

Background: Urban green and blue-green infrastructures (GI/BGI) support a wide range of ecosystem services, including flood mitigation, water and air quality improvements, biodiversity enhancement, and climate regulation. Vegetation is a central component of GI/BGI, yet effective implementation requires interdisciplinary knowledge exchange among scientists, planners, practitioners, policymakers, and the public. Methods: This review explores the role of vegetation in the GI/BGI framework by synthesising foundational definitions, historical evolution of the concepts, and a range of ecosystem services provided by GI/BGI. It examines literature and case studies with a focus on biodiversity, plant dispersal, and the use of digital tools and mathematical models for ecosystem assessment. Results: Hydrology, vegetation and interconnectedness among components constitute three principal pillars for the GI/BGI concepts. GI/BGI systems contribute to aesthetic improvements, enhanced biodiversity, microclimate regulation, and protection of downstream waterbodies. Barriers such as policy fragmentation and underestimation of benefits are discussed, along with potential trade-offs and disbenefits. Brownfield sites emerged as important for urban biodiversity. The role of digital tools in modelling species dispersal and evaluating GI/BGI benefits is demonstrated through international case studies. The paper also provides an outline of a model representing the spread of biological species through the GI/BGI network and its potential application for assessment of biodiversity of plants, animals, fungi and algae in urban environments. Conclusion: Vegetation plays a critical role in GI/BGI and its successful implementation relies on interdisciplinary approaches, knowledge exchange and stakeholder collaboration. Further research should address knowledge gaps in biodiversity patterns and biogeochemical cycles, particularly through comparative ecosystem analysis and development of adaptive management strategies.