Analysis of human reliability in detecting GPS spoofing on ECDIS in congested waterways under evidential reasoning and HEART approach

The maritime industry is highly concerned about cybersecurity due to the growing utilisation of digital technologies for navigation and other operations on-board ships. The connectivity of the systems creates vulnerabilities that make crucial ship functions prone to cyber-attacks, such as manipulating Global Positioning System (GPS) signals through spoofing. These threats provide substantial risks, particularly while navigating congested waterways. Identifying spoofing attacks requires consistent alertness and sophisticated monitoring from navigation professionals already dealing with demanding workloads. This research comprehensively analyses human reliability, specifically in detecting GPS spoofing on Electronic Chart Displays and Information Systems (ECDIS) in congested waterways. In order to accomplish this, the Human Error Assessment and Reduction Technique (HEART), as a robust tool, is expanded using the Evidential Reasoning (ER) approach. The HEART provides a comprehensive tool for calculating human error probability, whereas the ER incorporates raters' assessments in decision-making. The research findings indicate that human reliability for detecting GPS spoofing on ECDIS in congested waterways is found to be 6.74E-01. In addition to having practical implications for marine cybersecurity, the suggested technique demonstrates how a thorough understanding of human errors can be obtained. This allows for systematic quantification of the probabilities of human errors associated with identifying spoofing to enhance operational reliability.