A peridynamic framework for ice-structure interaction: modelling rate-dependent ice fracture under impact loading

This study presents a peridynamic (PD)-based numerical framework for simulating ice– structure interaction under dynamic loading, with a specific focus on impact-induced fracture. The framework integrates a rate-dependent damage model that captures the strain-rate sensitivity of ice—specifically its enhanced compressive strength at high strain rates and nearly rate-independent tensile strength—into a PD formulation. To enforce contact between ice and rigid structures, a discrete element method (DEM)- based penalty contact algorithm is implemented. This algorithm incorporates both normal and tangential interactions using classical Hertzian and Mindlin contact laws, augmented with Coulomb friction, thereby enabling realistic representation of frictional dissipation and stick–slip phenomena during contact events. The impactor is modelled using a multi-sphere approach, allowing for extension to complex geometries.

The model is validated using drop ball test (DBT) simulations, where a rigid steel sphere impacts an ice plate. Numerical results, including the residual velocity of the impactor and the evolution of fracture patterns, are shown to be in excellent agreement with experimental data and prior benchmarks. Further analyses explore the sensitivity of the model to spatial and temporal resolution, as well as the influence of damping ratio on damage patterns. The framework accurately captures velocity-dependent fracture behaviour, showing localized crushing and complex crack branching under high-speed impact and simpler radial cracking under lower velocities.